The gram-negative coccobacillus bacteria Haemophilus species cause numerous mild and serious infections, including bacteremia, meningitis, pneumonia, sinusitis, otitis media, cellulitis, and epiglottitis. Diagnosis is by culture, nucleic acid amplification tests, and serotyping. Treatment is with antibiotics.
Many Haemophilus species are normal flora in the upper respiratory tract and rarely cause illness. Pathogenic strains enter the upper respiratory tract through droplet inhalation or direct contact. Spread is rapid in nonimmune populations.
Children, particularly males, are at highest risk of serious infection. Black and Native American people also are at increased risk of infection, but much of this increase in risk likely reflects disparities in health care or in social determinants of health. Overcrowded living conditions and day care center attendance predispose to infection, as do immunodeficiency states, asplenia, and sickle cell disease.
There are several pathogenic species of Haemophilus; the most common is H. influenzae, which has 6 distinct encapsulated serotypes (a through f) and numerous nonencapsulated, nontypeable strains. Before the use of H. influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccine, most cases of serious, invasive disease were caused by type b.
Diseases caused by Haemophilus species
H. influenzae causes many childhood infections, including meningitis, bacteremia, acute infectious arthritis, pneumonia, tracheobronchitis, otitis media, conjunctivitis, sinusitis, and acute epiglottitis. These infections, as well as endocarditis and urinary tract infections, may occur in adults, although far less commonly.
Nontypeable H. influenzae strains cause mainly mucosal infections (eg, otitis media, sinusitis, conjunctivitis, bronchitis). Occasionally, nonencapsulated strains cause invasive infections in children, but they may cause up to half of serious H. influenzae infections in adults.
H. influenzae biogroup aegyptius (formerly called H. aegyptius) may cause mucopurulent conjunctivitis and bacteremic Brazilian purpuric fever.
H. ducreyi causes chancroid.
H. parainfluenzae and H. aphrophilus are rare causes of bacteremia, endocarditis, and brain abscess.
Diagnosis of Haemophilus Infections
Cultures
Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs)
Sometimes serotyping
Diagnosis of Haemophilus infections is by culture of blood and body fluids.
NAATs help identify pathogens causing meningitis.
Strains involved in invasive illness should be serotyped.
Treatment of Haemophilus Infections
Various antibiotics depending on site and severity of infection
Treatment of Haemophilus infections depends on nature and location of the infection, but, for invasive disease, beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitors, fluoroquinolones, and second- and third-generation cephalosporins are used. The Hib conjugate vaccine has markedly reduced the rate of bacteremia and other invasive infections.
Children with serious illness are hospitalized with respiratory droplet isolation for 24 hours after starting antibiotics.
Cefotaxime and ceftriaxone eliminate respiratory carriage of H. influenzae, but other antibiotics used for systemic infection do not do so reliably. Thus, children with invasive Hib disease who were not treated with cefotaxime or ceftriaxone
Prevention of Haemophilus Infections
Hib conjugate vaccines (monovalent and in combination with other childhood vaccines) are available for children ≥ 2 months of age and have reduced invasive infections (eg, meningitis, epiglottitis, bacteremia) by 99%. A primary series is given at age 2, 4, and 6 months or at age 2 and 4 months, depending on the vaccine product. A booster at age 12 to 15 months is indicated with either product.
Household contacts of patients with invasive Hib disease may have asymptomatic H. influenzae carriage. Unimmunized or incompletely immunized household contacts <
Nursery or day care contacts should receive prophylaxis if ≥ 2 cases of invasive disease occurred in 60 days. The benefit of prophylaxis for only 1 case of invasive disease has not been established.
Key Points
Several species of Haemophilus are pathogenic; the most common is H. influenzae.
H. influenzae causes many types of mucosal and, less commonly, invasive infection, primarily in children.
Antibiotic choices depend strongly on the site of infection and require susceptibility testing.
H. influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccines, given as part of routine childhood immunization to children ≥ 2 months of age, have reduced invasive infections by 99%.
Close contacts may be asymptomatic H. influenzae
More Information
The following English-language resource may be useful. Please note that THE MANUAL is not responsible for the content of this resource.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Clinical Overview of Haemophilus influenzae Disease
