Toxocariasis is human infection with nematode (worm) ascarid larvae of the genus Toxocarathat ordinarily infect animals. Symptoms are fever, anorexia, hepatosplenomegaly, rash, pneumonitis, asthma, or visual impairment. Diagnosis is by enzyme immunoassay. Treatment is with albendazole or mebendazole. Corticosteroids may be added for severe symptoms or eye involvement.
In the United States, the seropositive rate estimate of toxocariasis in humans is over 10% (1) and elsewhere is approximately 19% (2).
In the United States, infection with Toxocara canis in puppies is common because vertical transmission of encysted larvae is not cleared by routine deworming, but adult dogs also can also be infected. Infection with T. cati in cats is less common.
(See also Approach to Parasitic Infections.)
General references
1. Lee RM, Moore LB, Bottazzi ME, Hotez PJ. Toxocariasis in North America: a systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8(8):e3116. Published 2014 Aug 28. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003116
2. Rostami A, Riahi SM, Holland CV, et al. Seroprevalence estimates for toxocariasis in people worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019;13(12):e0007809. Published 2019 Dec 19. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007809
Pathophysiology of Toxocariasis
The eggs of Toxocara canis, T. cati, and other animal ascarid helminths mature in soil and infect dogs, cats, and other animals. Humans may accidentally ingest eggs in soil contaminated by stool from infected animals or may ingest undercooked infected transfer hosts (eg, rabbits). The eggs hatch in the human small intestine. Larvae penetrate the intestinal wall and may migrate through the liver, lungs, central nervous system (CNS), eyes, or other tissues. Tissue damage is caused by the parasite and the local immune response it elicits.
The larvae usually do not complete their development in the human body but can remain alive for many months.
Image from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Global Health, Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria.
Symptoms and Signs of Toxocariasis
Visceral larva migrans
Visceral larva migrans (VLM) consists of fever, anorexia, hepatosplenomegaly, rash, pneumonitis, and asthmatic symptoms, depending on the affected organs. Larvae of other helminths including Baylisascaris procyonis, Strongyloides species, and Paragonimus species can cause similar symptoms and signs when they migrate through tissue.
VLM occurs mostly in 2- to 5-year-old children with a history of geophagia or in adults who ingest clay.
The syndrome is self-limiting in 6 to 18 months if egg intake ceases. Deaths due to invasion of the brain or heart occur rarely.
Ocular larva migrans
Ocular larva migrans (OLM), also called ocular toxocariasis, is usually unilateral and has no or very mild systemic manifestations. OLM lesions consist mostly of granulomatous inflammatory reactions to a larva, resulting in uveitis and/or chorioretinitis. As a result, vision can be impaired or lost.
OLM occurs in older children and less commonly in young adults. The lesion may be confused with retinoblastoma or other intraocular tumors.
Diagnosis of Toxocariasis
Enzyme immunoassay for antibodies against Toxocara plus clinical findings
Diagnosis of toxocariasis is based on clinical, epidemiologic, and serologic findings.
For visceral larva migrans (VLM), enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for antibodies against Toxocara is recommended to confirm the diagnosis. Isoagglutinins may be elevated, but the finding is nonspecific. CT or MRI can show multiple, ill-defined, 1.0- to 1.5-cm oval lesions scattered in the liver or poorly defined subpleural nodules in the chest.
Hypergammaglobulinemia, leukocytosis, and marked eosinophilia are common in VLM.
Biopsies of the liver or other affected organs may show eosinophilic granulomatous reactions, but larvae are difficult to find in tissue sections and biopsies are low yield. Stool examinations are worthless.
For ocular larva migrans (OLM), ophthalmologic expertise is essential for diagnosis. Granulomatous reactions appear as oval, white lesions in the posterior pole or periphery of the retina. Some patients present with endophthalmitis manifesting as a red, painful eye with diffuse intraocular inflammation.
Serologic tests are useful for confirming a clinical diagnosis of VLM and OLM. The presence of anti-Toxocara antibodies and characteristic ophthalmologic findings are helpful in differentiating OLM from retinoblastoma and preventing unnecessary surgical enucleation of the eye. Unfortunately, anti-Toxocara antibody titers can be low or undetectable in patients with OLM. A positive antibody test can be due to past infection (global anti-Toxocara seroprevalence is approximately 19%) (1); therefore, serology should be interpreted in the context of the patient's history and clinical presentation.
Diagnosis reference
1. Rostami A, Riahi SM, Holland CV, et al. Seroprevalence estimates for toxocariasis in people worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019;13(12):e0007809. Published 2019 Dec 19. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007809
Treatment of Toxocariasis
Albendazole or mebendazole
Symptomatic treatment
Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild visceral larva migrans (VLM) symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited.
Antihistamines may suffice to help relieve mild symptoms of itching and rash.
For patients with moderate to severe symptoms, albendazole or mebendazole is used, but the optimal duration of therapy has not been determined (1).
Corticosteroids are indicated for patients with severe symptoms to reduce inflammation.
Ophthalmologic expertise is essential in the care of ocular larva migrans (OLM). Corticosteroids, both local and oral, are indicated to reduce inflammation within the eye. The role of anthelmintic therapy is uncertain. Albendazole used with corticosteroids may reduce recurrences, but comparative data are not available on the optimal dose and duration of therapy, and there is no evidence that albendazole improves visual outcome. Unfortunately, almost all patients have visual impairment.
Laser photocoagulation has been used to kill larvae in the retina. Cryosurgery or surgical vitrectomy have been used in some circumstances.
Treatment reference
1. Magnaval JF, Bouhsira E, Fillaux J. Therapy and Prevention for Human Toxocariasis. Microorganisms. 2022;10(2):241. Published 2022 Jan 22. doi:10.3390/microorganisms10020241
Prevention of Toxocariasis
Infection with T. canis in puppies is common in the United States; infection with T. cati in cats is less common. Both animals should be dewormed regularly.
Contact with dirt or sand contaminated with animal feces should be minimized. Sandboxes should be covered.
Key Points
The Toxocara canis life cycle normally involves dogs; humans are infected only accidentally, when they ingest eggs in soil contaminated by stool from infected animals or ingest undercooked infected transfer hosts (eg, rabbits).
In humans, toxocariasis causes 2 main syndromes: visceral larva migrans (which causes various symptoms depending on the organ infected) and ocular larva migrans (which usually causes no or mild symptoms but can result in impaired or lost vision).
Diagnose based on history and physical examination and enzyme immunoassay for Toxocara antigens.
Most cases of visceral larva migrans are self-limited and do not require treatment, but, if needed, the following can be used: albendazole or mebendazole for moderate to severe symptoms, possibly antihistamines for mild symptoms of itching and rash, and corticosteroids for severe symptoms.
For ocular larva migrans, systemic and local corticosteroids, sometimes albendazole, and depending on the circumstances laser therapy, cryotherapy, or surgical procedures.
Deworming dogs and cats can help prevent toxocariasis.
