Cardiovascular Disorders

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Approach to the Cardiac Patient

• Introduction to the Cardiac Patient
  • History
  • Physical Examination

• Cardiovascular Examination
  • Vital Signs
    • Ankle-brachial index (ABI)
    • Orthostatic changes
    • Pulsus paradoxus
    • Vital signs references
  • Pulses
    • Peripheral pulses
    • Carotid pulses
  • Veins
    • Peripheral veins
    • Neck veins
  • Chest Inspection and Palpation
    • Inspection
    • Palpation
  • Lung Examination
  • Abdominal and Extremity Examination
    • Abdomen
    • Extremities
  • Point-of-Care Ultrasonography (POCUS)
  • Point-of-care ultrasound references

• Cardiac Auscultation
  • Systolic heart sounds
  • Diastolic heart sounds
  • Approach to murmurs
  • Systolic murmurs
  • Diastolic murmurs
  • Continuous murmurs
  • Pericardial friction rub

Symptoms of Cardiovascular Disorders

• Chest Pain
  • Pathophysiology
  • Etiology
  • Evaluation
    • History
    • Physical examination
    • Red flags
    • Interpretation of findings
    • Testing
    • Evaluation references
  • Treatment
  • Geriatrics Essentials
  • Key Points

• Edema
  • Pathophysiology
  • Etiology
  • Evaluation
    • History
    • Physical examination
    • Red flags
    • Interpretation of findings
    • Testing
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Geriatrics Essentials
  • Key Points

• Limb Pain
  • Etiology
  • Evaluation
    • History
    • Physical examination
    • Red flags
    • Interpretation of findings
    • Testing
  • Treatment
  • Key Points

• Orthostatic Hypotension
  • Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)
  • General references
  • Pathophysiology
  • Etiology
  • Evaluation
    • History
    • Physical examination
    • Red flags
    • Interpretation of findings
    • Testing
  • Treatment
    • Nonpharmacologic interventions
    • Pharmacotherapy
    • Treatment references
  • Geriatrics Essentials
    • Geriatrics essentials reference
  • Key Points
  • More Information

• Palpitations
  • Pathophysiology
  • Etiology
    • Causes of arrhythmias
    • Consequences
  • Evaluation
    • History
    • Physical examination
    • Red flags
    • Interpretation of findings
    • Testing
  • Treatment
  • Geriatrics Essentials
  • Key Points

• Syncope
  • Pathophysiology
    • Insufficient cerebral blood flow
    • Insufficient cerebral substrate
  • Etiology
  • Evaluation
    • History
    • Physical examination
    • Red flags
    • Interpretation of findings
    • Testing
    • Evaluation references
  • Treatment
  • Geriatrics Essentials
  • Key Points

Cardiovascular Tests and Procedures

• Overview of Cardiovascular Tests and Procedures

• Electrocardiography
  • Standard ECG Components
    • P wave
    • PR interval
    • QRS complex
    • QT interval
    • ST segment
    • T wave
    • U wave
  • Specialized ECG Tests
    • Additional precordial leads
    • Esophageal lead
    • Signal averaging
    • Continuous ST-segment monitoring
    • QT dispersion
    • Heart rate variability
    • Holter monitor
    • Event recorder
    • Wireless adhesive monitor
    • Smartwatches with ECG capability
  • More Information

• Cardiac Imaging Tests
  • Chest X-Rays in Cardiac Diagnosis
  • Computed Tomography (CT) in Cardiac Diagnosis
  • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in Cardiac Diagnosis
  • Positron Emission Tomography (PET) in Cardiac Diagnosis

• Echocardiography
  • Techniques
  • Methodology
  • Stress echocardiography

• Radionuclide Imaging of the Heart
  • Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
  • Myocardial Perfusion Imaging
    • Indications
    • Protocols and imaging agents
  • Infarct Avid Imaging
  • Radionuclide Ventriculography
    • Left ventriculography
    • Right ventriculography
    • Valve assessment
    • Shunt assessment

• Tilt Table Testing
  • Procedure
    • Contraindications
  • Interpretation

• Stress Testing
  • Stress Test Methodology
    • Exercise stress testing
    • Pharmacologic stress testing
  • Diagnostic Stress Test Methodology
    • Electrocardiography (ECG)
    • Radionuclide myocardial perfusion imaging
    • Echocardiography
    • Radionuclide ventriculography

• Electrophysiologic Studies (EPS)

• Cardiac Catheterization
  • Procedure
    • Left heart catheterization
    • Right heart catheterization
  • Specific Tests During Cardiac Catheterization
    • Angiography
    • Coronary artery flow measurements
    • Intravascular ultrasonography (IVUS)
    • Optical coherence tomography (OCT)
    • Tests for cardiac shunts
    • Measurement of cardiac output and flow
    • Endomyocardial biopsy
    • Tests during cardiac catheterization references
  • Contraindications to Cardiac Catheterization
  • Complications of Cardiac Catheterization
    • Contrast agent complications
    • Contrast agent complications reference
    • Catheter-related complications
    • Access site complications
  • More Information

Overview of Arrhythmias and Conduction Disorders

• Overview of Arrhythmias
  • Anatomy of the Cardiac Conduction System
    • Anatomy of conduction system reference
  • Cardiac Physiology
    • Electrophysiology
    • Normal cardiac rhythm
    • Cardiac physiology references
  • Pathophysiology
    • Reentry
    • Pathophysiology reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Bradyarrhythmias
    • Tachyarrhythmias
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Surgery for cardiac arrhythmias

• Medications for Arrhythmias
  • Antiarrhythmic drug references
  • Class I Antiarrhythmic Drugs
    • Class Ia antiarrhythmic drugs
    • Class Ib antiarrhythmic drugs
    • Class Ic antiarrhythmic drugs
    • Class 1 antiarrhythmic drugs references
  • Class II Antiarrhythmic Drugs
  • Class III Antiarrhythmic Drugs
  • Class IV Antiarrhythmic Drugs

• Direct Current (DC) Cardioversion-Defibrillation
  • Procedure for DC cardioversion
  • Complications of DC cardioversion
  • References

• Cardiac Pacemakers
  • Indications for pacemaker placement
  • Types of cardiac pacemakers
  • Complications of pacemaker use
  • References

• Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT)
  • References

• Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators (ICD)
  • Indications for ICDs
  • ICD malfunction
  • When an ICD discharges
  • References

• Ablation for Cardiac Arrhythmia
  • References

Specific Cardiac Arrhythmias

• Emergency Treatment of Arrhythmias

• Atrial Fibrillation
  • Complications of atrial fibrillation
  • General references
  • Etiology
  • Classification
    • Classification references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Ventricular rate control
    • Rhythm control
    • Ablation procedures for atrial fibrillation
    • Prevention of thromboembolism
    • Prevention of thromboembolism in patients undergoing cardioversion
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Atrial Fibrillation and Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome (WPW Syndrome)
  • General reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference

• Atrial Flutter
  • General references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Atrioventricular Block
  • First-degree AV block
  • Second-degree AV block
  • Third-degree AV block
  • References
  • Key Points

• Bundle Branch Block and Fascicular Block
  • References

• Ectopic Supraventricular Arrhythmias
  • Atrial premature beats
  • Focal atrial tachycardia
  • Multifocal atrial tachycardia
  • Wandering atrial pacemaker
  • Nonparoxysmal junctional tachycardia
  • Junctional ectopic tachycardia
  • References

• Reentrant (Paroxysmal) Supraventricular Tachycardias (PSVT)
  • Pathophysiology
    • Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT)
    • Atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia (AVRT)
    • Atrial reentrant tachycardia and sinus nodal reentrant tachycardia
    • Pathophysiology references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Sick Sinus Syndrome
  • General reference
  • Etiology
    • Etiology reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Key Points

• Syndrome of Inappropriate Sinus Tachycardia
  • General references
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Torsades de Pointes Ventricular Tachycardia
  • Pathophysiology
    • Predisposing factors
    • Pathophysiology reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Ventricular Fibrillation (VF)
  • Idiopathic ventricular fibrillation
  • General references
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references

• Ventricular Premature Beats (VPB)
  • General references
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis

• Ventricular Tachycardia (VT)
  • General references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Acute
    • Long-term
    • Treatment reference
  • Key Points

• Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome (WPW Syndrome)
  • Pathophysiology
    • Pathophysiology references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Acute
    • Long-term
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

Arrhythmogenic Cardiac Disorders

• Overview of Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathies
  • Reference

• Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy
  • General reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Symptoms and signs reference
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Key Points

• Lamin A/C Cardiomyopathies (Cardiolaminopathies)
  • General reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Non-Compaction Cardiomyopathy
  • General reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Key Points

• Cardiac Sarcoidosis
  • General references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points
  • More Information

• Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Arrhythmias
  • General references
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Key Points

• Overview of Channelopathies
  • Reference

• Brugada Syndrome
  • General reference
  • Pathophysiology
    • Pathophysiology reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Symptoms and signs references
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
  • Treatment references
  • Prevention
  • Key Points
  • More Information

• Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia
  • General reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment

• Early Repolarization Syndrome
  • General references
  • Diagnosis
  • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Long QT Interval Syndromes
  • General references
  • Pathophysiology
    • Predisposing factors for arrhythmia
    • Pathophysiology references
  • Etiology
    • Etiology reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Symptoms and signs reference
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Key Points

• Isolated Progressive Cardiac Conduction Disease
  • References

• Short QT Interval Syndromes
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references

Arteriosclerosis

• Atherosclerosis
  • General references
  • Pathophysiology
    • Atherosclerotic plaque formation
    • Plaque stability and rupture
  • Risk Factors
    • Documented vascular disease
    • Risk factor references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Symptomatic patients
    • Asymptomatic patients (screening)
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Diet
    • Physical activity
    • Antiplatelet drugs
    • Statins
    • Other drugs
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Nonatheromatous Arteriosclerosis
  • Arteriolosclerosis
  • Mönckeberg arteriosclerosis
  • Key Points

Cardiac Tumors

• Cardiac Tumors
  • General references
  • Classification
    • Benign primary cardiac tumors
    • Malignant primary cardiac tumors
    • Metastatic tumors
    • Classification references
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Types of symptoms and signs
    • Symptoms and signs by tumor type
    • Symptoms and signs reference
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

Cardiomyopathies

• Overview of Cardiomyopathies

• Dilated Cardiomyopathy
  • General reference
  • Pathophysiology
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis reference
  • Key Points
  • More Information

• Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
  • Etiology
    • Etiology reference
  • Pathophysiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points
  • More Information

• Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
  • General reference
  • Etiology
  • Pathophysiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

Coronary Artery Disease

• Overview of Coronary Artery Disease
  • General references
  • Etiology
  • Pathophysiology
    • Coronary atherosclerosis
    • Coronary artery spasm
    • Coronary artery dissection
  • Risk Factors
    • Risk factor references
  • Coronary Artery Anatomy
  • Treatment
    • Medical therapy
    • Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)
    • Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG)
    • Treatment references
  • Prevention
    • Prevention references

• Angina Pectoris
  • Etiology
  • Pathophysiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Unstable angina
  • Diagnosis
    • ECG
    • Stress testing
    • Coronary angiography
    • Imaging the coronary arteries
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Medications for angina
    • Revascularization
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Key Points

• Microvascular Angina
  • References

• Vasospastic Angina
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references

• Overview of Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS)
  • Classification
  • Etiology
    • Myocardial infarction in the absence of coronary artery disease (MINOCA)
    • Etiology references
  • Pathophysiology
    • Myocardial dysfunction
    • Myocardial infarction (MI)
    • Electrical dysfunction
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Complications
  • Diagnosis
    • ECG
    • Cardiac biomarkers
    • Coronary angiography
    • Other tests
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Prehospital care
    • Hospital admission
    • Supportive care
    • Treatment references
  • Rehabilitation and Post-Discharge Treatment
    • Functional evaluation
    • Activity
    • Risk factor modification
    • Medications
    • Rehabilitation and post-discharge treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis reference
  • Key Points

• Unstable Angina
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • ECG
  • Cardiac biomarkers
  • Coronary angiography
  • Treatment
    • Prehospital care
    • Hospital admission
    • Pharmacologic treatment of unstable angina
    • Reperfusion therapy in unstable angina
    • Rehabilitation and post-discharge treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

• Acute Myocardial Infarction (MI)
  • General reference
  • Pathophysiology
    • Infarct location
    • Infarct extent
    • Myocardial infarction in the absence of coronary artery disease (MINOCA)
    • Pathophysiology references
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Symptoms and signs references
  • Diagnosis
    • ECG
    • Cardiac biomarkers
    • Coronary angiography
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Prehospital care
    • Hospital admission
    • Pharmacologic treatment of acute myocardial infarction
    • Reperfusion therapy in acute myocardial infarction
    • Rehabilitation and post-discharge treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Key Points

• Complications of Acute Coronary Syndromes
  • Sinus Node Disturbances
    • Sinus bradycardia
    • Sinus tachycardia
  • Atrial Arrhythmias
    • Atrial fibrillation
    • Atrial flutter
    • Atrial arrhythmia reference
  • Conduction Defects
    • Treatment of heart block following MI
  • Ventricular Arrhythmias
    • Ventricular tachycardia
    • Ventricular fibrillation
    • Ventricular arrhythmias reference
  • Heart Failure
  • Papillary Muscle Disorders
    • Papillary muscle disorders reference
  • Myocardial Rupture
  • Ventricular Aneurysm
  • Hypotension and Cardiogenic Shock
    • Hypotension
    • Cardiogenic shock
    • Hypotension and cardiogenic shock reference
  • Right Ventricular Ischemia or Infarction
  • Recurrent Ischemia
  • Mural Thrombosis
    • Mural thrombus references
  • Pericarditis
  • Post-MI Syndrome (Dressler Syndrome)

• Medications for Acute Coronary Syndromes
  • References
  • Antiplatelet Agents
    • Patients not undergoing revascularization
    • Patients undergoing revascularization
    • Antiplatelet agent reference
  • Anticoagulant Agents
    • Unfractionated heparin
    • Low molecular weight heparin
    • Choice of heparin
    • Heparin alternatives
    • Anticoagulants reference
  • Beta-Blockers
    • Beta-blocker reference
  • Nitrates
  • Fibrinolytics
    • Contraindications to fibrinolytic therapy
  • Other Medications
    • Other medications references

• Overview of Revascularization for Acute Coronary Syndromes
  • Unstable Angina and Non–ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction
  • ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction
  • General reference

• Percutaneous Coronary Interventions (PCI)
  • Procedure
  • Stents
    • Types of stents
    • Stent reference
  • Anticoagulation and ancillary therapy
  • Contraindications
  • Complications
    • Thrombosis
    • Restenosis
    • Arterial dissection
    • Stroke
    • Complications reference

• Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG)
  • Traditional CABG Procedure
    • Complications of coronary artery bypass grafting
    • Traditional CABG procedure references
  • Alternative CABG Procedures
    • Off-pump CABG
    • Minimally invasive CABG
    • Alternative CABG procedures reference

Diseases of the Aorta and Its Branches

• Overview of Aortic Aneurysms
  • Reference

• Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms (AAA)
  • General references
  • Etiology
    • Risk factors
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Complications
    • Symptoms and signs references
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Surgical complications
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms
  • Complications
  • General reference
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Key Points

• Aortic Branch Aneurysms
  • General reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Key Points

• Aortic Dissection
  • Classification of aortic dissection
  • General references
  • Etiology
  • Pathophysiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Symptoms and signs reference
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Medical management
    • Surgical repair
    • Long-term management
    • Treatment reference
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Key Points

• Aortitis
  • Reference

• Abdominal Aortic Branch Occlusion
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Key Points

Endocarditis

• Infective Endocarditis
  • Reference
  • Etiology
    • Endocardial factors
    • Microorganisms
    • Etiology reference
  • Pathophysiology
    • Local consequences
    • Systemic consequences
  • Classification
    • Classification reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Subacute bacterial endocarditis
    • Acute bacterial endocarditis and prosthetic valvular endocarditis
    • Right-sided endocarditis
    • Symptoms and signs reference
  • Diagnosis
    • Identification of organisms
    • Imaging studies
    • Diagnostic criteria
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Antibiotic regimens
    • Cardiac valve surgery
    • Anticoagulation
    • Response to treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Prevention
    • Patients at high risk
    • Procedures requiring antibiotic prophylaxis
    • Prophylactic antibiotic regimens
    • Prevention references
  • Key Points

• Noninfective Endocarditis
  • General reference
  • Etiology
    • Marantic endocarditis
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

Heart Failure

• Heart Failure (HF)
  • Physiology
  • Pathophysiology
    • Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF)
    • Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF)
    • Heart failure with mildly reduced ejection fraction (HFmrEF)
    • LV failure
    • RV failure
    • Cardiac response
    • Hemodynamic responses
    • Renal responses
    • Neurohumoral responses
    • Changes with aging
  • Etiology
  • Classification
    • Classification reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • History
    • Examination
  • Diagnosis
    • Chest x-ray
    • ECG
    • Imaging
    • Blood tests
    • Other tests
    • Diagnosis references
  • Prognosis
    • End-of-life care
  • Treatment
    • Disease management
    • Arrhythmias
    • Device therapy
    • Surgery and percutaneous procedures
    • Anemia and iron deficiency
    • Persistent heart failure
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points
  • More Information

• Drugs for Heart Failure
  • Selection of drugs for heart failure
  • Drug selection references
  • Classes of Drugs for Heart Failure
    • Aldosterone antagonists
    • Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
    • Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs)
    • Angiotensin receptor/neprilysin inhibitors (ARNIs)
    • Beta-blockers
    • Digoxin
    • Diuretics
    • Sinus node inhibitors
    • Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i)
    • Vasodilators
    • Other drugs
    • Drug treatment references
  • More Information

• Pulmonary Edema
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Cor Pulmonale
  • Pathophysiology
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
  • Key Points

Hypertension

• Hypertension
  • General references
  • Etiology
    • Primary hypertension
    • Secondary hypertension
    • Etiology references
  • Pathophysiology
    • Abnormal sodium transport
    • Sympathetic nervous system
    • Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
    • Vasodilator deficiency
    • Pathology and complications
    • Pathophysiology references
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Symptoms and signs reference
  • Diagnosis
    • Blood pressure measurement
    • Variable measurements and hypertension
    • History
    • Physical examination
    • Testing
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Lifestyle modifications
    • Medications
    • Devices and physical interventions
    • Resistant hypertension
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Key Points

• Medications for Hypertension
  • General medication reference
  • Diuretics
    • Diuretic references
  • Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors
    • ACE inhibitors references
  • Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARBs)
  • Calcium Channel Blockers
    • Calcium channel blocker reference
  • Direct Renin Inhibitor
  • Beta-Blockers
    • Beta-blockers references
  • Alpha Adrenergic Modifiers
  • Direct Vasodilators
    • Direct vasodilators references

• Hypertensive Emergencies
  • Hypertensive urgencies
  • General references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Renovascular Hypertension
  • General reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis
    • Fibromuscular dysplasia
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

Lymphatic Disorders

• Overview of the Lymphatic System
  • Disorders of the lymphatic system

• Lymphadenopathy
  • Pathophysiology
  • Etiology
    • Etiology reference
  • Evaluation
    • History
    • Physical examination
    • Red flags
    • Interpretation of findings
    • Testing
    • Evaluation references
  • Treatment
  • Key Points

• Lymphedema
  • Etiology
    • Primary lymphedemas
    • Secondary lymphedema
    • Etiology references
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Complications
    • Symptoms and signs references
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points
  • More Information

Myocarditis and Pericarditis

• Myocarditis
  • Pathophysiology
  • Etiology
    • Giant cell myocarditis
    • Etiology references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis of cause
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Pericarditis
  • Anatomy
    • Anatomy reference
  • Pathophysiology
    • Pathophysiology reference
  • Etiology
    • Etiology references
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Acute pericarditis
    • Pericardial effusion
    • Cardiac tamponade
    • Constrictive pericarditis
  • Diagnosis
    • Acute pericarditis
    • Pericardial effusion
    • Constrictive pericarditis
    • Cardiac tamponade
    • Diagnosis of cause
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

Peripheral Arterial Disorders

• Acrocyanosis

• Erythromelalgia

• Fibromuscular Dysplasia
  • Key Points

• Peripheral Arterial Aneurysms
  • Key Points

• Peripheral Arterial Disease
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Drug treatment
    • Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA)
    • Surgery
    • External compression therapy
    • Stem cell transplantation
    • Gene therapy
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points

• Acute Peripheral Arterial Occlusion
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Key Points

• Raynaud Syndrome
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Clinical findings
    • Laboratory testing
  • Treatment
  • Key Points

• Thromboangiitis Obliterans
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
  • Key Points

Peripheral Venous Disorders

• Arteriovenous Fistula
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment

• Chronic Venous Insufficiency and Post-Thrombotic Syndrome
  • General references
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment references
  • Prevention
    • Prevention reference
  • Key Points

• Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT)
  • General references
  • Etiology
    • Etiology reference
  • Pathophysiology
    • Complications
    • Pathophysiology reference
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Ultrasonography
    • D-Dimer
    • Additional testing
    • Alternative imaging
    • Determination of cause
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
    • Anticoagulants
    • Inferior vena cava (IVC) filter
    • Thrombolytic (fibrinolytic) therapy
    • Surgery
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Prevention
    • Prevention reference
  • Key Points

• Medications for Deep Venous Thrombosis
  • Anticoagulants
    • Anticoagulation strategies for DVT
    • Low molecular weight heparins (LMWHs)
    • Unfractionated heparin (UFH)
    • Factor Xa inhibitors
    • Direct thrombin inhibitors
    • Vitamin K antagonists (warfarin)
    • Anticoagulant treatment references
  • Bleeding During Use of Anticoagulants
    • Anticoagulant reversal
    • Clotting factors
    • Antifibrinolytics and other agents
    • Resumption of anticoagulation after bleeding
    • Bleeding due to anticoagulants reference
  • Thrombolytic (Fibrinolytic) Agents
    • Thrombolytic treatment reference
  • More Information

• Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT) Prevention
  • Risk Assessment
  • Treatment
    • Mechanical therapy for DVT prophylaxis
    • Pharmacologic therapy for DVT prophylaxis
    • DVT prophylaxis in selected populations
    • Prevention of post-thrombotic syndrome
    • Treatment references
  • Key Points
  • More Information

• Idiopathic Telangiectasias
  • Treatment

• Superficial Venous Thrombosis
  • General reference
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference

• Varicose Veins
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
  • Key Points

Sports and the Heart

• Athlete’s Heart
  • General references
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • ECG
    • Echocardiography
    • Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging
    • Stress testing
    • Diagnosis references
  • Treatment
  • Prognosis
    • Prognosis references
  • Key Points

• Sudden Cardiac Death in Athletes
  • General references
  • Key Points
  • More Information

• Screening for Sports Participation
  • Screening for Cardiovascular Risks of Sports Participation
    • Selected testing
    • Recommendations for sports participation
    • Cardiovascular screening references
  • Screening for Other Risks of Sports Participation
  • Contraindications to Sports Participation
  • Key Points

Valvular Disorders

• Overview of Cardiac Valvular Disorders
  • General reference
  • Treatment
    • Choice of cardiac valve prosthesis
    • Anticoagulation for patients with a prosthetic cardiac valve
    • Follow-up of prosthetic valves
    • Treatment reference

• Aortic Regurgitation
  • Etiology
  • Pathophysiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Indications for intervention
    • Treatment reference
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

• Aortic Stenosis
  • Etiology
  • Pathophysiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
    • Diagnosis reference
  • Treatment
    • Indications for intervention
    • Choice of intervention
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

• Mitral Regurgitation
  • Etiology
  • Pathophysiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Indications for intervention
    • Choice of intervention
    • Anticoagulation
    • Treatment references
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

• Mitral Stenosis
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Palpation
    • Auscultation
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Timing of intervention
    • Choice of intervention
    • Treatment reference
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

• Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)
  • Reference
  • Etiology
    • Complications
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Auscultation
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

• Pulmonic Regurgitation
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Auscultation
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
  • Key Points

• Pulmonic Stenosis
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Auscultation
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
  • Key Points

• Tricuspid Regurgitation
  • Etiology
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Auscultation
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
    • Treatment reference
  • Prognosis
  • Key Points

• Tricuspid Stenosis
  • Symptoms and Signs
    • Auscultation
  • Diagnosis
  • Treatment
  • Key Points